Excessive Meowing and Yowling | Why Is My Cat So Vocal?
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Introduction
Cats have a wide range of vocalizations, such as meowing and yowling, the latter tending to be louder and more drawn out than a regular meow. Other sounds include purring, hissing, growling, and chattering. Although vocalizing is a normal behavior that cats use to communicate, it can become excessive and disruptive.
Does your cat yowl loudly and constantly throughout the day, causing frustration for the household? Have they suddenly started meowing more than usual, and you are concerned for their well-being? Do they meow at night, and you're at your wit's end due to a lack of uninterrupted sleep?
If you're wondering, "Why does my cat meow so much?" we are here to help! In this article, you will discover all the reasons cats vocalize excessively and the steps you can take to reduce the amount of noise they make.
Topics covered in this article include:
- 7 medical reasons cats vocalize excessively
- 7 behavioral reasons cats vocalize excessively
- A 10-step plan to reduce excessive vocalization
Why Do Cats Meow and Yowl So Much?
A cat's excessive meowing or yowling can result from either a medical issue, such as an underlying disease or health problem, or a behavioral issue, which is how a cat acts based on their learned habits and genetics. There may also be multiple reasons a cat is vocalizing excessively; for example, a senior cat who is yowling at sunrise due to dementia but also has arthritis causing discomfort and loss of vision causing distress.
Medical Reasons Cats Vocalize Excessively
1. Pain or Discomfort
Although it's more common for cats to become quiet and withdrawn when feeling unwell, some may become more vocal. Painful and uncomfortable conditions that could cause a cat to meow more than usual include:
- Arthritis - typically occurs in older cats who may develop subtle changes in how they move, such as a slower, stiffer gait and reduced jumping. To learn more, read the Complete Guide to Arthritis in Cats.
- Bladder disease - including cystitis, urinary tract infections, or bladder stones, which frequently cause difficulty urinating.
- Constipation - usually noticed due to discomfort defecating and hard stools.
- Dental disease - often associated with bad breath and red, inflamed gums.
- Ear infection - characterized by a red, inflamed ear, head shaking, and ear scratching.
- Kidney disease - such as pyelonephritis (a kidney infection) or a ureterolith (a stone blocking a ureter, the tubes connecting the kidneys to the bladder).
- Pancreatitis - commonly causes vomiting and abdominal discomfort.
- Wounds - such as a cat bite abscess due to fighting, which initially forms under the skin before rupturing, or caused by a traumatic injury.
2. Polyphagia
Cats that have become increasingly vocal in their demand for food and have an insatiable appetite may have polyphagia, a medical term for excessive hunger. The following health problems can potentially cause an increased appetite in cats:
- Diabetes - due to a lack of insulin or an inadequate response to insulin, glucose cannot be taken into the cells to be utilized as an energy source and is instead lost in the urine, resulting in weight loss with an increased appetite, as well as increased urination and thirst.
- Hyperthyroidism - more common in older cats, an overactive thyroid gland (located in the neck) results in an increased metabolic rate and burning of calories, leading to weight loss, with a compensatory increased appetite.
- Inflammatory bowel disease - diffusely inflamed small intestines may have an impaired ability to absorb nutrients, resulting in an increased appetite, as well as other potential signs such as weight loss, vomiting, and diarrhea.
- Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency - occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough digestive enzymes, leading to an inability to effectively break down and digest food, which results in weight loss despite increased food intake +/- diarrhea. It is rare in cats but may occur secondary to chronic pancreatitis.
- Cushing's disease (hyperadrenocorticism) - an uncommon disease in cats caused by the adrenal glands producing too much cortisol. As well as polyphagia, additional clinical signs include increased thirst and urination, a pot-belly, and thin, fragile skin.
- Intestinal parasites - a heavy worm burden may cause an increased appetite with a failure to gain weight +/- diarrhea.
- Drug side effects - an increased appetite may occur while taking prednisolone (an anti-inflammatory medication) or phenobarbitone (an anti-seizure medication).
Cats with an increased appetite due to an underlying disease typically have additional clinical signs such as weight loss, diarrhea, vomiting, or increased thirst and urination. Cats with no other clinical signs who have always had a ravenous appetite may simply be greedy and really enjoy their food! It also shouldn't be assumed that each time a cat meows, they are hungry, and other causes or excessive vocalization should be ruled out.
3. Hyperthyroidism
Typically a condition of older cats, hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland in the neck becomes enlarged and overactive. Thyroid hormones are produced in excess, causing an increase in metabolic rate and sympathetic nervous system tone (the fight or flight response).1 Not only can cats become more vocal because they burn more energy and are always hungry, but they can also feel anxious and restless, leading to yowling, especially at night.
As well as a palpable goiter (enlarged thyroid gland in the neck), potential clinical signs include weight loss despite an increased appetite, mild vomiting and diarrhea, increased heart rate, poor coat quality, heat intolerance, and increased thirst and urination.
4. Hypertension
Hypertension (high blood pressure) in cats usually occurs as a result of an underlying condition, such as chronic kidney disease, hyperthyroidism, or Conn's syndrome (excessive hormone production from an adrenal gland tumor). Middle-aged and older cats are more likely to develop high blood pressure, with the risk increasing with age.
High blood pressure can adversely affect the brain, potentially causing headaches and signs of dementia, such as disorientation and restlessness, which can lead to pacing and excessive vocalizing, especially at night. If left untreated, more severe neurological signs can occur, such as a head tilt, nystagmus (eyes flickering), or seizures.2 Other organs damaged by high blood pressure include the eyes, heart, and kidneys.
5. Blindness or Deafness
When a cat cannot see or hear, they may rely more on meowing as a means to communicate with their owner, such as locating their whereabouts, soliciting assistance, or seeking reassurance. If a decline in their senses causes them to feel distressed or disorientated, they may vocalize more.
Cats can be born deaf (more common in white cats with blue eyes), become deaf due to a medical condition (such as an ear infection, tumor, or toxin), or gradually lose their hearing with age. Owners may find deaf cats are easily startled, difficult to rouse when asleep, or vocalize loudly since they aren't aware of their own volume.
A cat who has lost their sight may occasionally bump into objects, avoid jumping, or stop going outside. If a cat loses their sight very suddenly, they may become confused and scared. In contrast, cats who gradually lose their vision often adapt incredibly well by relying on their sense of smell and touch, and it may only be obvious they have reduced vision once placed in an unfamiliar environment, the lighting is dim, or furniture is moved around.
One of the most common reasons cats go blind is retinal detachment due to high blood pressure. Other causes of blindness in cats include uveitis, glaucoma, cataracts, enrofloxacin toxicity, trauma, and tumors.
6. Cognitive Dysfunction
Cognitive dysfunction, also referred to as senile dementia, is another condition that can lead to excessive vocalization in cats, who often howl loudly and repetitively. It typically occurs in senior cats and is a gradual age-related degeneration of the brain and decline in cognitive function, similar to Alzheimer's disease in people.3
Signs associated with cognitive dysfunction include:
- Alterations in social interactions - some cats become more clingy while others can become agitated and grumpy; they may also fail to recognize familiar people or pets.
- Changes in sleep-wake cycle - cats may be more active at night or dawn, often waking their owners.
- House-soiling - they may forget where their litter box is or no longer want to toilet outside.
- Disorientation - cats may aimlessly pace, stare, and look lost.
- Alterations in activity levels - some cats become more restless while others become increasingly lethargic and less interested in play.
- Learning and memory deficits - they may forget words they used to understand, to groom themselves, to eat, or that they just ate.
- Anxiety - due to feeling lost and uncertain.
- Excessive vocalization - they may frequently meow or yowl loudly, often in an attempt to seek reassurance but sometimes for no apparent reason.
7. Brain Tumors
Brain tumors are an uncommon cause of excessive vocalization and typically occur in older cats, with meningiomas being the most frequently reported.4 Other potential clinical signs of a brain tumor include personality changes, lethargy, disorientation, decreased vision, circling, loss of balance, and seizures.
Behavioral Reasons Cats Vocalize Excessively
1. Innate Trait
Some breeds, such as Siamese or Bengals, have a natural tendency to communicate extensively with their owners and enjoy being chatty and talkative. However, individual cats of any breed will vary in their personalities and how often they are inclined to vocalize.
2. Anxiety or Stress
Cats may meow excessively when anxious or stressed, for example, when separated from their owner, grieving the loss of a housemate, visiting the vet, or due to changes in their environment or routine, such as moving home, construction work, or the arrival of a new baby.
3. Learned / Reinforced Behavior
A cat may learn that persistently vocalizing achieves a desired outcome, whether it's attention, cuddles, play, food, or going outside. Once a cat learns this behavior, it's fairly effortless to meow repeatedly until you provide them with what they want.
For example, if a hungry cat meows for food at 4 am and their owner gets up to feed them because they want the meowing to stop, the behavior is rewarded and reinforced. The next time they are hungry, the meowing will likely be repeated. Additionally, if a cat meows for attention and you respond by petting or playing with them, they learn that meowing leads to an interaction with you. They will likely continue to vocalize to seek attention, whether it's a suitable time for you or not.
4. Frustration
Cats can become frustrated when unable to do what they want and may express their displeasure at the situation by vocalizing excessively. Other potential signs of frustration could be pacing, retreating, aggression, or destructive tendencies. Causes of frustration in cats include:
- Inability to reach prey, for example, birds in the garden or mice hiding in the walls.
- Prevention from lying in their preferred resting spot, for example, if another pet is lying on their favorite window perch or cushion.
- A litter box that is too dirty to use or difficult to access.
- Restricted access to areas of the house or outdoors, for example, a cat that is no longer allowed access to the spare room as it's being converted to a nursery or a cat that has been rehomed and is no longer permitted outdoor access.
5. Boredom
A lack of mental and physical stimulation can lead to boredom, resulting in excessive vocalization. To prevent cats from exhibiting unwanted behaviors, it is essential to provide daily environmental enrichment, such as safe outdoor access, playtime, climbing, perching, grooming, and puzzle feeders. If a cat has very little to do all day, don't be surprised if they are wide awake at night and meowing.
6. Mating Behavior
Unspayed (intact) female cats may vocalize excessively when in heat (estrus), signaling they are receptive to mating. Other signs a cat is in heat include increased affection, rolling around on the floor, raised hindquarters, and urine marking.
If a cat is showing signs of estrus behavior despite being neutered, potential sources of estrogen include ovarian remnant syndrome (part of the ovary was left behind when spayed or ovarian tissue developed in an unusual place, known as ectopic ovarian tissue), hormone replacement cream applied to the owner's skin that comes into contact with their cat, or sex hormone-producing adrenal gland tumors.
7. Territorial Behavior
If a cat yowls near doors and windows, they may have seen a stranger cat outside the home and are attempting to guard their territory. Conflict between cats in the same household who are unhappy about sharing a territory can also lead to increased vocalization. If your cats are not getting along well, read the 5-Step Plan on How to Separate and Reintroduce Cats After a Fight.
How Can I Stop My Cat Meowing and Yowling So Much?
1. Veterinary Health Check
The first step is to determine whether your cat's excessive vocalizing is the result of an underlying health condition. Your vet will take a full history and perform a complete physical exam, then, based on their findings, may suggest additional diagnostic tests, such as bloodwork, urinalysis, blood pressure screening, radiographs, or ultrasound.
If a disease is diagnosed, then a specific treatment plan can be implemented. However, your vet may also suggest treatment trials, such as pain relief for an older cat who likely has arthritis as their gait is stiff, or brain support supplements for an older cat who has started vocalizing and cognitive dysfunction is suspected after all other medical conditions have been excluded.
2. Provide Essential Resources & Meet Basic Needs
To minimize a cat's need to vocalize excessively and support their overall well-being, it's important to ensure they have easy access to all their essential resources and that all of their basic needs are met, not only when they are vocalizing but at all times.
- Food - cats should be provided with at least two meals daily to avoid excessive hunger between feedings. If your cat howls for food, offer small, frequent meals placed in puzzle feeders, such as the Trixie Activity Fun Board, to increase stimulation and extend mealtimes. Automatic feeders, such as the PETLIBRO, can also be programmed to provide small meals at regular intervals, including early in the morning if your cat wakes you up for breakfast, with the additional advantage of teaching your cat to rely on the feeder for food instead of you. A meal before bedtime may also help satisfy cats who seek food at night.
- Water - cats should have easy access to fresh, clean water, which should be kept in a separate location from the food.
- Litter boxes - litter boxes should be in easy-to-access locations, contain a substrate your cat enjoys (usually fragrance-free clumping litter with a depth of 3-4 inches), and be spot-cleaned 2-3 times daily. The number of litter boxes you have should equal the number of cats you have plus an extra one, ideally placed in different rooms.
- Resting and sleeping areas - cats should have multiple options for comfortable places to rest and sleep, with some central in the home and others in quiet locations where they won't be disturbed.
- Scratching posts - scratching is a normal feline behavior to stretch, mark their territory, shed outer nail sheaths, and relieve stress. Cats should have access to several scratching posts and boards throughout the house.
- Opportunities for climbing and perching - since cats like to be up high, provide them with condos, window perches, and shelves.
- Social interactions - if your cat enjoys social activities, regularly interact with them, such as playing, cuddling, and grooming.
PETLIBRO Automatic Cat Food Dispenser
- Feed up to 6 meals per day and customize the portion size
- Schedule meals during the night and early morning to stop your cat meowing and waking you up
- Food is sealed to keep it fresh, keep ants out, prevent spillage, and stop your cat from stealing extra
- Runs of wall power or batteries
- Stores up to two weeks of cat food and has a 'low food' indicator
- Maintains a regular feeding schedule for your cat so they know when their meals are coming and stop relying on you for food
3. Provide Plenty of Enrichment
To help reduce excessive meowing, provide plenty of enrichment throughout the day and evening to keep your cat occupied and prevent boredom. Providing an outlet for their energy during the day will help them sleep better at night, and spending time engaging in fun activities with your cat reduces their stress levels, as well as yours.
Ideas to help keep your cat mentally and physically stimulated include:
- Play sessions - at least twice daily interactive play sessions are recommended with wand and fishing-rod type toys, such as Da Bird Feather Toy, that your cat can chase and hunt. To maintain your cat's interest, rotate toys regularly and have some only available during play sessions.
- Automated toys - although your cat should always be supervised when playing with automated cat toys they can be a low-effort way to provide your cat with enrichment while you get on with other tasks. Popular automatic toys include the 3-in-1 Butterfly, Feather & Ball Toy, Flapping Chirping Bird, and Motion Activated Laser Toy.
- Puzzle feeders - there is a huge variety of puzzle feeders that can be used with treats or your cat's main meal, such as snuffle mats, Trixie Activity Fun Board, Indoor Hunting Cat Feeder, PetSafe SlimCat, and LickiMat Slow Feeder (for wet food).
- Cat condos and shelves - cats love to be up high, so provide shelves and condos for them to climb and rest on. We love multi-layered, high-quality, intricate pieces, such as the CatastrophiCreations Wall-Mounted Gardens Set and IMUsee 68-inch Large Cat Tree.
- Window perches - Cats enjoy lounging by windows to watch wildlife and catch the sunshine. The Zakkart Window Hammock provides the perfect cozy spot to observe the world go by and is machine-washable, sturdy, and foldable so that you can close the curtains or blinds at night.
- Tunnels - tunnels provide cats with opportunities for exploration and play, such as the fun EGETOTA 5-Way Tunnel. Alternatively, DIY tunnels can be made by joining cardboard boxes together and cutting holes in the side.
- Exercise wheels - for indoor cats who need to burn off energy, consider an exercise wheel such as the Star Cat Exercise Wheel, which has a built-in luminous fish that attracts their attention as they run. Exercise wheels provide an excellent way for indoor cats to run and play, promoting physical activity and mental stimulation.
- Clicker training - clicker training is a fun way to teach your cat tricks while strengthening your bond. Purchase the Cat School Clicker Training Kit for everything you need to get started and begin with simple commands like sit, come, and high-five to engage your cat's mind and encourage positive behaviors.
- Outdoor access - if safe and feasible, provide supervised outdoor access for your cat through a secure catio, cat-proof garden, or leash and harness. Experiencing the outdoors, with all the tantalizing smells, sounds, and sights, is an excellent way to provide mental stimulation for your cat. Consider options like the Oscillot Cat-Proof Fencing, Aivituvin Extra Large Catio, or Kitty Holster Leash and Harness for controlled outdoor adventures.
| Product | Empty | Features | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
 | D | A high-quality and irresistible toy that encourages hunting behavior when swished along the floor and through the air. | View on Amazon |
 | 3 | This entertaining automatic toy has a feather that randomly shoots in and out of holes, a fluttering butterfly, and track-bound balls. | View on Amazon |
 | L | The laser beam moves in a random and erratic pattern, keeping your cat engaged for hours. Afterward, give them a toy they can catch to avoid frustration. | View on Amazon |
 | T | An interactive puzzle feeder that encourages foraging behavior and can be used with wet or dry food. | View on AmazonView on Chewy |
 | Z | The perfect resting spot for your cat where they can be entertained by the activity outside. | View on Amazon |
 | S | Perfect for cats who have lots of energy to burn. The moving, luminous fish attracts their attention as they run. | View on Amazon |
 | C | Cat School Clicker Training Kit Provide mental and physical stimulation as you teach your cat to fist bump, jump, weave through your legs, and much more! It's a fun and bonding experience. | View on Amazon |
 | A | An extra large enclosure provides a safe space for your cat to experience outdoors. | View on AmazonView on Aivituvin |
4. Minimise Stress, Anxiety, and Frustrations
Stress, anxiety, and frustration can contribute to excessive vocalization, so it's essential to minimize or eliminate these factors where possible.
For example, if you have stranger cats in your garden, cover the windows with Frosted Privacy Film to block your cat's view while still letting in light. If your cat wants to be outdoors, install an outdoor catio, such as the Aivituvin Extra Large Catio, or train them to walk on a leash and harness, such as the Kitty Holster. If they are only allowed in the garden during the day and wake you up in the morning to go outside, get a cat flap with a timer, such as the SureFlap Microchip Pet Door, which allows you to set a curfew and program the door to lock and unlock at certain times. If their litter box is dirty but your schedule limits multiple cleanings a day, get a bigger box or provide an extra one.
A tranquil atmosphere can also be created in the home by playing calming music, such as David Teie's Music for Cats, and using plug-in diffusers that release relaxing feline pheromones, such as Feliway Optimum.
If an anxious cat needs further support, then calming supplements may help, such as Zylkene, which contains a natural milk protein, or Solliquin, which contains an amino acid found in green tea plus other plant extracts. For more severe cases, anti-anxiety medications may be prescribed by a veterinarian if deemed appropriate and used in conjunction with behavioral and environmental modification.
- The curfew timer enables you to set the door to lock and unlock at specified times
- An excellent solution if your cat is indoors overnight and wakes you up with persistent meowing to be let out in the morning
- Only allows entry for your cat and keeps intruder animals out of the house
5. Ignore Vocalizations
Vocalizations should be ignored and not rewarded with attention, affection, food, play, or going outside, as doing so will only reinforce the behavior. It's important to completely ignore vocalizations by walking away or remaining silent and avoiding subtle responses such as saying "no," making eye contact, or petting your cat to 'calm them down.' Although ignoring vocalizations can be challenging and distressing for some owners, staying relaxed and calm within yourself will be the most helpful for your cat.
Don't be surprised if vocalizing initially escalates as your cat tries harder and harder to get your attention. However, over time, they should learn that vocalizing does not result in the desired outcome, and the unwanted behavior should gradually decline before finally stopping. If your cat vocalizes mainly at night, a set of earplugs for the first week or so may offer some relief.
The exception to ignoring vocalizations would be if your cat is meowing excessively due to a medical condition, is in a distressing situation requiring assistance, or is experiencing an intense emotion, such as fear or grief, and needs support. For example, some owners of cats with dementia find that if their cat is yowling at night, simply letting them sniff their hand or giving them a little tickle under the chin lets them know they are in a safe space and can go back to sleep.
6. Reward Desirable Behaviors
In addition to ignoring excessive vocalizing, rewarding nonvocal, quiet, calm behaviors is essential to set boundaries and help your cat understand which behaviors are acceptable and which are not.
For example, your cat may need to sit quietly before they are given their food (even if only for a few seconds initially and then gradually increasing the length of time), or you may decide to give them affection when they gently rub on your legs rather than vocalize.
One of my cats would get on the bed at 1 am and meow continuously and loudly because she wanted to get under the warm duvet cover. However, I ignored her vocalizing, so she started to paw at the sheets gently instead, which I rewarded by lifting the sheet as it was a much less disruptive behavior than loudly meowing. She soon learned that pawing got her what she wanted, and it became her way of calmly letting me know she wanted to get under the duvet.
It's important not to fall into the habit of ignoring your cat when they are showing calm behaviors and make an effort to pay attention to and reinforce desirable behaviors with rewards they enjoy, such as play, affection, and treats.
7. Establish a Daytime Routine
Establishing a regular daily routine for your cat with play, meals, cuddles, and naps at set times can help reduce excessive vocalization. It enables your cat to predict the structure of the day, provides a sense of security, reduces anxiety and uncertainty, and ensures their daily needs are met.
Most cats prefer a regular daily routine, and if they learn to associate certain events they enjoy with specific times of the day, they will be less likely to feel the need to vocalize excessively to get your attention or to request these things outside of scheduled times.
8. Establish a Nighttime Routine
It is recommended to reduce stimulation when preparing for bedtime. Play sessions should ideally be earlier in the day and evening, and your cat's sleeping area should be a calm and quiet space.
Some cats prefer complete darkness while they sleep, while others may prefer a nightlight, for example, if their vision is deteriorating.
Cats who vocalize for food at night may benefit from a small meal before bedtime or an automatic feeder, such as the PETLIBRO, or puzzle feeder, such as the Trixie Activity Fun Board, so they can access food throughout the night without relying on you.
If your cat continues to vocalize at night, preventing you from getting a good night's sleep, it may be necessary to place them in a separate sleeping room as part of their nighttime routine. Offer them a tasty treat, tell them goodnight, then close the door and don't open it until the morning.
This technique does not involve shutting your cat in the kitchen out of frustration in the middle of the night, but rather preparing a space they will find comfortable and relaxing ahead of time. If you decide to create a separate sleeping room for your cat, consider:
- Choosing a room that is not adjacent to your own bedroom
- Providing all their necessary resources, including food, water, scratching posts, and a litter box (ideally not adjacent to each other)
- A warm, comfortable bed, such as the K&H Heated Thermo Snuggle Cup
- Low-volume calming music
- A Feliway Optimum plug-in diffuser, which releases calming feline pheromones
- A night light or complete darkness, depending on what they prefer
- An automatic feeder to serve small, frequent meals or a puzzle feeder
- Wearing earplugs for the first few nights until they settle
K&H Thermo-Snuggle Snuggle Cup
- The perfect cozy bed to use for your cat's sleeping room
- Made with super soft fleece walls that surround your cat so they feel secure
- Electrically heated and thermostatically controlled to keep your cat at the perfect snuggly temperature
- Machine-washable
9. Be Persistent and Consistent
Solving an excessive vocalization problem may take several weeks of committed and persistent training. Be consistent with which behaviors you reward and ignore and make sure that everyone in the household follows the same rules to avoid sending your cat mixed and confused messages. Even after the excessive vocalization has improved, you may have to continually implement the techniques that have worked to sustain positive changes.
10. Consult a Veterinary Behaviorist
If your cat continues to vocalize excessively despite all your efforts, it is advisable to consult with a veterinary behaviorist (Board Certified Veterinary Behaviorists Directory) who can assess your individual situation, either online or in person, and provide specific guidance. Depending on their assessment, they may also recommend medications to help support your cat.
Summary
- Cats communicate through various vocalizations, including meowing and yowling, which can become disruptive if excessive.
- Medical reasons for excessive vocalization include pain or discomfort, polyphagia (excessive hunger), hyperthyroidism, hypertension (high blood pressure), a decline in senses (blindness or deafness), cognitive dysfunction (dementia), and brain tumors.
- Behavioral reasons for excessive vocalization include innate traits, anxiety or stress, learned/reinforced behavior, frustration, boredom, mating behavior, and territorial behavior.
- To address excessive vocalization, a veterinary health check is crucial to rule out medical issues, followed by providing essential resources and meeting all your cat's basic needs, enriching your cat's environment, minimizing stressors, ignoring vocalizations, rewarding desirable behaviors, and establishing daily routines.
- A happy, quiet household can be achieved with patience, consistency, and persistence.
- Consulting a veterinary behaviorist may be necessary for more challenging cases.
References:
- Little, Susan. (2012). "Anesthesia and Perioperative Care." In The Cat: Clinical Medicine and Management (pp. 112-150). Saunders; 1st edition. ISBN: 978-1-4377-0660-4.
- Moretto L, Beckmann K, Günther C, et al. Manifestations of hypertensive encephalopathy in cats. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery. 2023;25(2).
- MacQuiddy B, Moreno J, Frank J, McGrath S. Survey of risk factors and frequency of clinical signs observed with feline cognitive dysfunction syndrome. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery. 2022;24(6):e131-e137.
- Rissi DR. A review of primary central nervous system neoplasms of cats. Veterinary Pathology. 2023;60(3):294-307.
